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<text>This color image of tile Earth was obtained by the Galileo spacecraft at about 6:10 a.m. PST on Dec. 11, 1990, when the spacecraft was about 1.3 million miles from the Earth. The color composite used images taken through the red, green and violet filters. South America is near the center of the picture, and the white, sunlit continent of Antarctica is below. Picturesque weather fronts are visible in the South Atlantic, lower right. This is the first frame of the Galileo Earth spin movie, a 500-frame time-lapse motion picture showing a 25-hour period of Earth's rotation and atmospheric dynamics.</text>
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<text> Eight days after its encounter with the Earth, the Galileo spacecraft was able to look back and capture this remarkable view about 6.2 million kilometers (3.9 million miles), on December 16. The picture was constructed from images taken through the violet, red, and 1.0-micron infrared filters. The Moon is in the foreground, moving from left to right. The brightly-colored Earth contrasts strongly with the Moon, which reflects only about one-third as much sunlight as Earth. Contrast and color have been computer-enhanced for both objects to improve visibility. Antarctica is visible through clouds (bottom). The Moon's farside is seen; the shadowy indentation in the dawn terminator is the south-pole/Aitken Basin, one of the largest and oldest lunar impact features, extensively studied from Galileo during the first Earth flyby in December 1990. The Galileo project, whose preliminary mission is the exploration of the Jupiter system in 1995-97, is managed for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.</text>
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<text>This color picture of the limb of the Earth, Looking north past Antarctica, is a mosaic of 11 images taken during a ten-minute period near 5:45 p.m. PST Dec. 8, 1990, by Galileo's imaging system. Red, green and violet filters were used. The picture spans about 1,600 miles across the south polar latitudes of our planet. The morning day/night terminator is toward the right. The South Pole is out of sight below the picture; the visible areas of Antarctica are those lying generally south of South America. The violet-blue envelope of Earth's atmosphere is prominent along the limb to the left. At lower left, the dark blue Amundsen Sea lies to the left of the Walgreen and Bakutis Coasts. Beyond it, Peter Island reacts with the winds to produce a striking pattern of atmospheric waves.</text>
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<text>This multispectral map of Australia and surrounding seas was obtained by the Galileo spacecraft's Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer shortly after closest approach on Dec. 8, 1990 from an altitude of about 50,000 miles. The image shows various ocean, land and atmospheric cloud features as they appear in three of the 408 infrared colors or wavelengths sensed by the instrument. The wavelength of 0.873 micron, represented as blue in the photo, shows regions of enhanced liquid water absorption, i.e. the Pacific and Indian oceans. The 0.984-micron band, represented as red, shows areas of enhanced ground reflection as on the Australian continent. This wavelength is also sensitive to the reflectivity of relatively thick clouds. The 0.939-micron wavelength, shown as green, is a strong water-vapor-absorbing band, and is used to accentuate clouds lying above the strongly absorbing lower atmosphere. When mixed with the red indicator of cloud reflection, the green produces a yellowish hue; this indicates thick clouds. The distinctive purplish color off the northeast coast marks the unusually shallow waters of the Great Barrier Reef and the Coral Sea. Here the blue denoting water absorption combines with the red denoting reflection from coral and surface marine organisms to produce this unusual color. The Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileo spacecraft is a combined mapping (imaging) and spectral instrument. It can sense 408 contiguous wavelengths from 0.7 micron (deep red) to 5.2 ,microns. and can construct a map or image by mechanical scanning. It can spectroscopic-ally analyze atmospheres and surfaces and construct thermal and chemical maps.</text>
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<text>This color image of tile Earth was obtained by the Galileo spacecraft at about 6:10 a.m. PST on Dec. 11, 1990, when the spacecraft was about 1.3 million miles from the Earth. The color composite used images taken through the red, green and violet filters. South America is near the center of the picture, and the white, sunlit continent of Antarctica is below. Picturesque weather fronts are visible in the South Atlantic, lower right. This is the first frame of the Galileo Earth spin movie, a 500-frame time-lapse motion picture showing a 25-hour period of Earth's rotation and atmospheric dynamics.</text>
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<text>This image from the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite shows preliminary results of wave height over the global ocean as measured by the Ku-band NASA radar altimeter. The data were recorded from Sept. 25 to Oct. 4, 1992. The highest waves were observed in the Southern Ocean south of South Africa and Australia, where giant waves as high as eight meters (26 feet) were recorded. These waves are shown in red. (The small pink square on the shoreline of Antarctica is an artifact of the processing.) The pattern of wave height is dependent upon the season. The highest waves tend to occur in winter and the lowest waves in summer. The time of this observation was during the transition of winter to spring in the Southern Hemisphere. Wave height is one of the oceanographic measurements made by the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite. It is determined by the shape of the return radar pulse. A calm sea with low waves returns a condensed pulse, and a rough sea with high waves returns a stretched pulse. Calibration and validation of the altimeter observations against ground truth measurements will be conducted over the next few months. TOPEX/Poseidon, a joint U.S./French mission, is part of NASA's Earth Science and Application Division. Launched Aug. 10,1992, it is the second satellite in the Mission to Planet Earth program, a long-term effort to study Earth from space.</text>
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<text>This image was created using data from the TOPEX/Poseidon radar altimeter. It shows how swirls of ocean currents, called eddies, change over distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers during periods that range from weeks to months. Eddies play an important role in ocean circulation because they transport an enormous amount of heat, salt, nutrients and other chemicals in the ocean and this process helps to shape the global climate. The data were collected during a 10 day period from Oct. 3 to 12, 1992 and were processed using preliminary algorithms that have not yet been adjusted based on post-launch calibrations. The altimeter measures the height of the sea surface along the satellite's ground track which covers the entire global ocean every 10 days. To understand how this new data measured by the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite differs from previously recorded measurements of sea surface height averaged over a long period of time, scientists needed a mean sea surface model. Prof. Richard Rapp of Ohio State University developed such a model which is supplied with the mission's science data stream. After subtracting the mean sea surface model from the satellite's altimeter measurement, the result was the sea surface height due to changes in ocean current as shown in the image. The image was produced by JPL's Oceanography Group. The intensity of the sea surface height is shown by the color scale at the bottom of the image. Areas greater than 25 cm are shown in white and occur mainly in regions of the following strong currents: The Gulf Stream off the east coast of the United States, the Kuroshio current off the east coast of Japan, the East Australian Current, the Agulhas Current south of South Africa, the Somali Current Somalia, and the convergence of the Brazil Current and the Falkland Current off the central east coast of South America. A chain of secondary highs shown in red, yellow and green, can be seen north of Antarctica. The image contains two artifacts of the processing that were introduced by slight errors in the mean sea surface model and the tidal model that was used to remove the effects of ocean tides; these artifacts occur around Panama and off of Argentina. TOPEX/Poseidon, a Joint U.S./French mission, is part of NASA's Earth Science and Application Division. Launched Aug. 10, 1992, it is the .second satellite in the Mission to Planet Earth program, a long-term effort to study Earth from space.</text>
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<text>This image shows the difference in sea surface height between two 10-day periods during October and December 1992. The sea surface height is measured by the two radar altimeters onboard the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite. These height measurements have been corrected to remove the errors that are introduced when the radar signals move through the atmosphere. The measurements have also been corrected for the effects of ocean and earth tides as well as ocean waves. This image show that during a two-month period, significant changes in sea surface height with magnitudes of 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 inches) can be seen. These changes are caused by variations of ocean currents and the dominant effects seems to be seasonal warming and cooling. In the northern hemisphere, it is the transition from fall to winter and the sea surface height decreases by 10 centimeters (4 inches) due to the contraction caused by cooling in most of the areas shown in blue between 10 and 45 degrees North. In the southern hemisphere, it is the transition from spring to summer and the sea surface height increases by 10 centimeters (4 inches) due to the expansion caused by warming in most of the areas shown in yellow between 15 and 50 degrees South. This image also shows a 10 centimeter rise in sea surface height along the central equatorial Pacific (from 170 to 240 degrees longitude) which reflects the seasonal variations of equatorial currents caused by the trade winds. Every three to five years, this variation may be amplified by the air-sea interaction processes and cause the occurrence of an El Nino event. This image was produced by Dr. Jean-Francois Minster, Centre National d-Etudes Spatiales, Toulouse, France.</text>
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<text>This is the first map of ocean topography produced using preliminary data from the TOPEX/Poseidon radar altimeter. Ocean topography is a measure of sea level relative to the Earth's geoid, a surface on which the gravity field is uniform. Oceanographers use ocean topography maps to calculate the speed and direction of ocean currents the same way meteorologists use maps of atmospheric pressure to calculate the speed and direction of winds. TOPEX/Poseidon is the first space mission that allows scientists to map ocean topography with sufficient accuracy to study the large-scale current system of the world's oceans. The total relief of ocean topography shown in this image is about 2 meters. In this image, the maximum sea level is located in the western Pacific Ocean (shown in white) and the minimum is shown around Antarctica (shown in blue and purple). In the northern hemisphere, ocean currents flow clockwise around the highs of ocean topography and counterclockwise around the lows. This process is reversed in the southern hemisphere. These highs and lows are the oceanic counterparts of atmospheric circulation systems. The existence and basic structure of these ocean systems are constant, but the details of these systems are constantly changing. Therefore, these features can be considered the "climate" of the ocean. The ocean topography data used in this image was calculated by scientists at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. The image was produced by JPL's Oceanography Group. TOPEX/Poseidon, a joint U.S./French mission, is part of NASA's Earth Science and Applications Division. Launched Aug.10, 1992, it is the second satellite in the Mission to Planet Earth program, a long-term effort to study Earth from space.</text>
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<text>This topographic relief map of the Earth shows some of the characteristics of the ocean floor. Oceans cover over 70% of the Earth's surface. The Earth's crust, which is an average 33 km thick, is divided into 15 tectonic plates which "float" on the liquid mantle below. These plates move as much as several centimeters a year. The largest plates are the Antarctic, Pacific, Eurasian, Australian-Indian, and North American plates. Plate boundaries occur where two plates are either receding from one another or are being pushed together. Oceanic ridges are the result of plates moving apart; a gap is left in the crust where molten material rises up from the mantle. More violent are the regions where plates are convergent on the same area. Where oceanic plates and continental plates meet, the oceanic plate is forced to slide under the other plate, creating a subduction zone. When two continental plates are convergent, however, neither plate can be subducted because of the local structure of the crust and mantle. In this case, the pressure on the plates causes them to fold and crack, creating mountain chains and faults. Earthquakes releave the pressure around the faults by allowing the crust to slip up and down.</text>
<text>In 1997, Japan plans to send the Lunar A spacecraft into orbit around the Moon. Lunar A will fire three probes into the surface to study the structure of the crust and temperatures in the Moon's interior. Japan is also considering a mapping mission for 1999, to be followed by a rover to explore the Moon's dark side in the year 2000. The United States has proposed a Lunar Observer mission for 1997 to survey the Moon's surface. The data obtained by the spacecraft would allow researchers to put the localized information obtained by the Apollo missions into a larger context. </text>
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<text>Apollo 12 Mission ProfileApollo 12 took off through storm clouds and was hit by lightning several times (apparently to no ill effect). On board were Charles Conrad and Alan Bean, who would pilot the Lunar Module (Intrepid) to the Moon's surface, and Richard Gordon, who would stay aboard the Command/Service Module (Yankee Clipper).The mission lasted 10 days and included 49 lunar orbits and a visit to the Moon's surface lasting 31 hours 31 minutes, of which 7 hours and 45 minutes was spent on the surface. This second landing had as its goal a touchdown near the old Surveyor 3 spacecraft which soft landed on the Moon several years before. The Intrepid touched down only 607 feet (185 m) away from the older spacecraft, kicking up a cloud of the talcum powder-like lunar dust from the floor of the Oceanus Procellarum.The crew recovered some parts of the Surveyor, including its camera, as well as collecting about 77 lbs (35 kg) of soil and rock samples. Left behind were several experiments powered by a tiny nuclear generator. Included were a seismometer, a dust collector, a solar wind ion collector, a lunar atmosphere analyzer, and several other small experiments. After the explorers left the Moon in the ascent module, the remaining lower part of the LM was commanded to fire its engine to produce vibrations creating an artificial earthquake. According to those monitoring the seismometers left by Apollo 11 and 12 back on Earth, the Moon "rang like a bell," emitting vibrations for 51 minutes. </text>
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<text>Apollo 13 Mission ProfileApollo 13 was intended to be America's third lunar surface exploration, but the mission nearly ended in disaster and death.The omens for the mission where not good. For example, the day before this fateful flight Thomas Mattingly was replaced by John Swigert when NASA became worried that Mattingly might be carrying the measles virus. (Luckily neither Mattingly nor the rest of the crew came down with the disease.)The Command/Service Module (CSM, nicknamed "Odyssey") would be piloted by Swigert, while James Lovell (on his fourth flight) and Fred Haise descended to the Moon aboard the Lunar Module ("Aquarius").Well on the way to the Moon, the spacecraft's No. 2 oxygen tank exploded. Tasked with supplying the Apollo's cooling system and powering its fuel cells, it was totally destroyed. The No. 1 tank was also damaged and lost its precious contents. This meant that the crew had only a few minutes worth of air, cooling and power left. The CSM's main engine was now also useless, possibly leaving them stranded. Luckily, the Aquarius was still intact, with its six-day reserves of 53 lbs. (24 kg) of oxygen, 52 gallons of water and engines with enough fuel to power its lunar descent and ascent. Using the LM's engines, the Apollo crew changed the planned rendezvous with the Moon from a lower level orbit, in preparation for the landing, into a much higher encounter which would carry them in an arc around the Moon, using minimal fuel and the Moon's gravity to bend their flight and send them back towards the Earth.All went well, despite carbon dioxide build up in the ship, a temperature drop which made the trip uncomfortable, and fears that more problems might occur.It seemed as though the entire world followed the unfolding drama, and as they finally began the procedures for their return a sigh of relief was shared by all. This was especially true when, having separated from the damaged portion of their craft, the crew's cameras were able to see that almost the entire side of the Service Module had been blown away. Upon their return it was discovered that the explosion was caused by a faulty heater in the oxygen tank number one, which had been pulled from Apollo 10 for causing problems and had been installed on 13 without adequate repairs and modifications.</text>
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<text>Apollo 14 Mission ProfileApollo 14 was originally scheduled for launch in October 1970, but due to the investigations and modifications forced by the near disaster of Apollo 13, it was delayed until January 1971. Their mission was retargeted for 13's destination, a rugged site near a crater on the edge of the Sea of Storms.The first Apollo missions had played it safe on landing sites, picking relatively flat open spots. The last few Apollos landed in more spectacular terrain, with mountains, boulder fields and craters nearby for exploration. The Command/Service Module, dubbed "Antares" was piloted by Stuart Roosa, while the LM, named "Kitty Hawk' was flown by Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell, who would explore the Lunar surface.The first of their 2 EVAs on the Moon was spent setting up the ALSEP (Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package) and its 496 l bs. (225 kg) of experiments, including more solar wind experiments and seismometers. On their second exploration they used a two-wheel "golf cart" to assist in carrying equipment and larger rock samples. It was aptly named, as Shepard suddenly pulled out three golf balls, which when hit by the handle of a geology tool flew for "miles and miles and miles." To help produce seismic readings, Mitchell exploded 13 cartridges while on the surface.After they left the Moon, the lunar module was programmed to crash into the lunar surface, as was the Saturn V's third stage , which they had discarded on the outbound trip. The force of the impacts was equal to that of several tons of TNT and produced strong signals at the three Apollo instrument sites now situated around the Moon's middle.Finally, on the way back to Earth, the astronauts performed a small experiment in space manufacturing. Kerosene, tungsten and sodium acetate were mixed and heated in a vial. Rather than separating by weight as they would in Earth's gravity, they stayed together, creating a totally new compound. </text>
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<id>12</id>
<text>Apollo 15 Mission ProfileOn Apollo 15 the astronauts, David Scott and James Irwin in the Lunar Lander "Falcon" and Alfred Worden piloting the Command Module "Endeavour," really got down to the work of exploration.They set down near the large peaks of the lunar Apennines and close to a gorge called Hadley's Rille that was 1,181 ft (360 m) deep. The Apollo spacecraft had been modified to allow a much longer stay on the Moon and the return of a much larger sample load of 220 lbs. (100 kg). The astronauts also were able to take samples from as deep as 7.7 ft. (2.36 m).During this mission a lunar rover was used for the first time, letting the explorers travel much greater distances than before. Traveling at an average speed of 2.5 mph (3-4 kmh) with a top speed of 8.7 mph (14 kmh), the rover carried the astronauts 3.73 miles (6 km) from their landing position. While on one of the EVAs, they found a solid crystal of anorthosite, measuring about four inches (10 cm) across. It was dubbed the "Genesis" rock in reference to the fiery birth of the Moon.While in orbit Worden conducted several experiments and even managed to launch a small lunar satellite. On the return trip the crew conducted 2 EVAs. The rest of the journey home was otherwise uneventful, except for the failure of one of the Command capsule's three parachutes to deploy, resulting in the none too gentle Apollo equivalent of a "belly flop" for the ship as they hit the Pacific Ocean.</text>
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<text>Apollo 16 Mission ProfileThe Apollo 16 mission once again featured the use of the lunar rover, and the astronauts traveled 17.3 miles (27.9 km) exploring the Descartes and Cayley formations using the trusty electric steed.While Charles Duke and John Young flew the Lunar Module "Orion" to the surface, Thomas Mattingly flew the Command/Service Module, nicknamed "Casper," for 64 orbits over their heads.Making three excursions onto the lunar highlands where they had landed, they investigated a region thought to be a part of t he Moon's original crust. (The earlier missions had landed in the Maria or lowlands, which appeared to have been created by more recent lava flows). The team spent 20 hours out of the Lunar Module. The astronauts used the rover's antennae to boost their own suits' signals, allowing them to work with a team of geologists on the Earth, who could monitor their work via a camera which was also mounted on the rover. The mission returned 213 lbs. (96.6 kg) of samples from the surface.</text>
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<text>Apollo 17 Mission ProfileApollo 17 was the last crewed mission to the Moon. It also set several new records, including longest Apollo mission (12 day s, 13 hours), longest stay on the Moon (3 days, 3 hours), most hours outside the Lunar Module (22 hours, 4 minutes) and largest mass of samples returned (243 lbs.).In addition to being the first Apollo night launch, it carried the first scientist to explore the Moon - Dr. Harrison H. Schmitt, a geologist. (He was also the LM's pilot.) The mission was a geologist's dream, to say the least. Schmitt and his companion Eugene Cernan landed their craft in a narrow box canyon in the rugged Taurus-Littrow valley area on the south-eastern edge of the Sea of Serenity (Oceanus Serenatatis).The valley was chosen for its geological interest, as it appeared to hold a wealth of lightly colored aluminum laced soil, which many scientists thought might be from the Moon's origin. In the same area was evidence of volcanic activity and cratering. During one of their EVAs they discovered a small crater they named "Shorty." Inside (and much to their loudly voiced excitement) they found a fine gravel comprised of small orange glass balls from the Moon's interior, which later turned out to be made up of relatively large amounts of lead, sulfur and zinc.Mission Commander Gene Cernan, who had flown only 9 miles above the Moon during the mission of Apollo 10, was at last able to walk its surface. Sadly, one of his last tasks while there was an extremely unpleasant one for an explorer. As they prepared to re -enter the LM and blast off to rendezvous with the Command Module and the waiting Ronald Evans, Cernan read out loud from a plaque mounted to the LM's lower stage (which would be left on the surface). On it was an image of the Earth between the Moon's two hemispheres and the following text: "Here man completed his first exploration of the Moon, December 1972. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind."One of the greatest adventures in human history had drawn to an end. The massive hulks of the already completed Saturn Vs which would have carried Apollo 18, 19 and 20 now bake in the sun at NASA facilities, mere tourist curiosities.As the astronauts flew into the blackness in the LM's upper stage, an automatic camera on the rover captured the sight in a lonely goodbye shot.</text>
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<text>Apollo 11 Mission ProfileOne of the most important events in human history, the mission of Apollo 11 was the first landing by human beings on another world. Launched the morning of July 16, Apollo 11 orbited the Earth twice before firing its engines for the Moon. After an outward flight of about three days, it entered a circular lunar orbit. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left the Command/Service Module (CSM,designated "Columbia") and entered the Lunar Module ("Eagle"). During the descent, Armstrong was dissatisfied with the boulder-strewn landing area the computer was guiding them towards, so he took control of the craft in the last few seconds and landed manually.As the spacecraft settled into the silty lunar soil, the people of Earth heard the words; "Houston, Tranquility Base here, the Eagle has landed." About seven hours later Armstrong became the first person to ever set foot on another planet. Great caution was taken by Armstrong during this procedure, as no one was sure whether the Moon's soil was strong enough to hold the weight of a human. A few minutes after taking his famous "one small step," Armstrong was joined by Aldrin, and the two proceeded to set up the U.S. flag and begin their explorations. (Armstrong had already secured a small lunar sample just in case they had to leave quickly.)Watched by the largest television audience to that date (some 1 billion people), the two astronauts unveiled a plaque which read "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the Moon, July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind."After spending about two and 1/2 hours on the dusty floor of the Sea of Tranquillity, the astronauts re-entered the LM and lifted off to rendezvous with Collins at an altitude of 68.4 miles (110 km).While Collins orbited above, he was able to see the Soviet automated Luna probe pass below him in a lower orbit. It was launched after the Apollo 11 crew in an attempt to "scoop" their mission by returning samples robotically.During their excursion Aldrin and Armstrong collected 48.5 lbs. (22 kg) of Lunar soil and rocks. Included in the 169.8 lbs. (77 kg) of experiments they set up were a laser reflector and several geological monitoring devices, including a seismometer which would later record the crash of the unsuccessful Luna probe and also helped confirm that the Moon was indeed a geologically "dead" world.Also left on the surface were medals from the Soviet Cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Vladimir Komarov, a small disk containing greetings from dozens of world leaders, a memento of the tragic Apollo 1 crew, and a postmarked "First Men on the Moon" stamp. </text>
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<text>Seven Surveyor spacecraft were launched between June 1966 and January 1968. The objective for all missions was a lunar soft landing, and to provide data in support of the Apollo program. Surveyors 1, 3, 5, 6, and 7 transmitted several thousand black and white photographs of the Moon. Surveyor 5 provided the first on-site soil analysis of the Moon.</text>
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<text>Ranger 1 was launched on August 23, 1961. Its objective was to develop and test basic elements of spacecraft technology required for lunar and interplanetary missions. The spacecraft made 111 orbits of Earth and traveled 3,000,000 miles.Ranger 3 was launched on January 26, 1962. This was the first attempt by the United States to take closeup pictures of the Moon and to make measurements on the lunar surface, However, Ranger 3 arrived at intercept with the Moon's orbit too early because of excess launch vehicle velocity. No photos were taken. The spacecraft flew by the Moon at a distance of 22,862 miles.Ranger 7 was launched on July 28, 1964 and impaced the Moon at the Sea of Clouds on July 31, 1964. Its objective was to acquire and transmit photographs of the lunar surface before impacting the Moon. Ranger 7 became the first U.S. spacecraft to obtain close-up photographs of the Moon and subsequently transmitted 4,316 images of the surface. Rangers 8 and 9 also reached the Moon and took many photographs before impacting.The other Ranger spacecraft failed for a variety of reasons.Prior to the United States' effort to land a probe on the surface of the Moon, the Soviet Union launched its Luna series. Though the first of these, Luna 1, did not reach the Moon, it did become the first probe to escape from the Earth and enter heliocentric orbit. Luna 2, launched on September 12, 1959, impaced the Moon near the Sea of Serenity. Luna 3, launched October 4, 1959, became the first spacecraft to image the far side of the Moon. Luna 9, launched January 31, 1966, achieved the first semi-soft landing on the surface of the Moon. After landing, the probe transmitted TV images of its surroundings. The Luna program continued until 1976. The series included the launches of 24 missions to the Moon, several of which were successful in analyzing soil samples, returning soil samples to the Earth, and studying the gravitational field.</text>
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<text>This image of the moon was obtained by the Galileo Solid-State imaging system on Dec. 8 at 7 p.m. PST as the Galileo spacecraft passed the Earth and was able to view the lunar surface from a vantage point not possible from the Earth. On the right-hand side of the image is seen the dark mare of Oceanus Procellarum, also visible from the Earth. The dark spots in the center are Mare Orientale, on the western limb of the near side of the moon, a region barely visible from the Earth. This region and the bright far-side highlands on the left have not been seen previously by a camera system such as the one on the Galileo spacecraft, which provides multispectral images of the lunar limb and far side which have not previously been obtained. Comparison of such images to those of the near-side areas from which Apollo astronauts have returned samples will help us understand the spectral properties and composition of the lunar far side.</text>
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<text>This image of the western hemisphere of the Moon was taken through a green filter by the Galileo spacecraft at 9:35 a.m. PST Dec. 9 at a range of about 350,000 miles. In the center is the Orientale Basin, 600 miles in diameter, formed about 3.8 billion years ago by the impact of an asteroid-size body. Orientale's dark center is a small mare. To the right is the lunar near side with the great, dark Oceanus Procellarum above and the small, circular, dark Mare Humorum below. Maria are broad plains formed mostly over 3 billion years ago as vast basaltic lava flows. To the left is the lunar far side with fewer maria, but, at lower left, the South-Pole-Aitken basin, about 1200 miles in diameter, which resembles Orientale but is much older and more weathered and battered by cratering. The intervening cratered highlands of both sides, as well as the maria, are dotted with bright, young craters. This image was "reprojected" so as to center the Orientale Basin, and was filtered to enhance the visibility of the German Aerospace Research Establishment near Munich, an international collaborator in the Galileo mission.</text>
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<text>This color image of the Moon was taken by the Galileo spacecraft at 9:35 a.m. PST Dec. 9, 1990, at a range of about 350,000 miles. The color composite uses monochrome images taken through violet, red, and near-infrared filters. The concentric, circular Orientale basin, 600 miles across, is near the center; the near side is to the right, the far side to the left. At the upper right is the large, dark Oceanus Procellarum; below it is the smaller Mare Humorum. These, like the small dark Mare Orientale in the center of the basin, formed over 3 billion years ago as basaltic lava flows. At the lower left, among the southern cratered highlands of the far side, is the South-Pole-Aitken basin, similar to Orientale but twice as great in diameter and much older and more degraded by cratering and weathering. The cratered highlands of the near and far sides and the Maria covered with scattered bright, young ray craters.</text>
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<text>These color visualizations of the Moon were obtained by the Galileo spacecraft as it left the Earth after completing its first Earth Gravity Assist. The image on the right was at 6:47 p.m. PST Dec. 8, 1990, from a distance of almost 220,000 miles, while that on the left was obtained at 9:35 a.m. PST Dec. 9, at a range of more than 350,000 miles. On the right, the near side of the Moon and about 30 degrees of the far side (left edge) are visible. In the full disk on the left, a little less than half the near side and more than half the far side (to the right) are visible. The color composites used images taken through the violet and two near-infrared filters. The visualizations depict spectral properties of the lunar surface known from analysis of returned samples to be related to composition or weathering surface materials. The greenish-blue region at the upper right in the full disk and the upper part of the right-hand picture Oceanus Procellarum. The deeper blue mare regions here and elsewhere are relatively rich in titanium, while the greens, yellows and light oranges indicate basalts low in titanium but rich in iron and magnesium. The reds (deep orange in the right-hand picture) are typically cratered highlands relatively poor in titanium, iron and magnesium. In the full-disk picture on the left, the yellowish area to the south is part of the newly confirmed South-Pole-Aitken basin, a large circular depression some 1,200 miles across, perhaps rich in iron and magnesium. Analysis of Apollo lunar samples provided the basis for calibration of this spectral map; Galileo data, in turn, permit broad extrapolation of the Apollo-based composition information, reaching ultimately to the far side of the Moon.</text>
<text>Earth's weather is controlled by intricate patterns of convection and circulation. There are three convection cells in each of the northern and southern hemispheres; these circulate air from the top to the bottom of the atmosphere. In addition, there are bands of winds similar to those seen in much larger scale on Jupiter. Near the equator, the prevailing winds blow westward and toward the equator. In the mid-latitude bands of both hemispheres the winds travel eastward and toward the poles. The atmosphere over the North pole circulates clockwise while the air over the South pole circulates counter-clockwise. In addition to this mass motion in the atmosphere, smaller cyclonic, or spiraling, motions are very common. These can range in size and intensity. The clouds in the atmosphere, composed of water vapor, are tracers of all of this motion. At any given time, a large percentage of the surface is hidden from view by satellites by these clouds. </text>
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<text>This original satellite photo was used by JPL imaging scientists to create "L.A.: The Movie," a two-minute film taking viewers on an aerial ride over a three-dimensional Southern California landscape. Beginning with this single, two-dimensional LANDSAT satellite photo of the Los Angeles area and existing elevation data, image processors used a special computer algorithm to generate 3,336 film frames (see accompanying photo P-30842). Animation techniques developed during the proof-of-concept project will be used by scientists to study the three-dimensional nature of global cloud cover. The research is funded by NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications.</text>
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<text> This enhanced Landsat Thematic Mapper image shows an area roughly 140 kilometers wide situated on the edge of the Empty Quarter in the country of Oman. This satellite data shows infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The northwestern part of the image is dominated by sand dunes. There are two major wadis (dry river beds) flowing northward into the dunes. The desert floor, mostly rocky gravel, plain and exposed limestone bedrock, dominates the southern and eastern portions of the image. The obvious light colored roads are modern gravel roads. There is a triangular intersection of modern roads just east of the longer wadi. The triangle of roads goes around the modern village of Shisr, which is located at the probable site of the ancient city of Ubar. Careful examination of the area east of Shisr will show several converging faint tracks. While still occasionally used, archaeological investigation indicates these roads are in fact ancient caravan trails. See p39746 for a closer view of this image.The Landsat satellite is managed and operated by the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) of Lanham, Maryland. 800-344-9933 .</text>
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<text>This image from the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite shows preliminary results of wave height over the global ocean as measured by the Ku-band NASA radar altimeter. The data were recorded from Sept. 25 to Oct. 4, 1992. The highest waves were observed in the Southern Ocean south of South Africa and Australia, where giant waves as high as eight meters (26 feet) were recorded. These waves are shown in red. (The small pink square on the shoreline of Antarctica is an artifact of the processing.) The pattern of wave height is dependent upon the season. The highest waves tend to occur in winter and the lowest waves in summer. The time of this observation was during the transition of winter to spring in the Southern Hemisphere. Wave height is one of the oceanographic measurements made by the TOPEX/Poseidon satellite. It is determined by the shape of the return radar pulse. A calm sea with low waves returns a condensed pulse, and a rough sea with high waves returns a stretched pulse. Calibration and validation of the altimeter observations against ground truth measurements will be conducted over the next few months. TOPEX/Poseidon, a joint U.S./French mission, is part of NASA's Earth Science and Application Division. Launched Aug. 10,1992, it is the second satellite in the Mission to Planet Earth program, a long-term effort to study Earth from space.</text>
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<text>EarthPlanet statisticsDistance from the Sun: Maximum: 94.2 million miles 152.1 million km 1.017 AU Minimum: 91.4 million miles 147.1 million km 0.983 AUMean: 93.0 miles 149.6 million km 1.000 AUPeriod of revolution: 365.26 daysPeriod of rotation (equatorial): 23 hr. 56 min. 4 sec.Mean orbital velocity: 18.5 miles (29.8 km) per secondInclination of axis: 23.44 degreesOrbital eccentricity: 0.017Orbital inclination: 0 degreesDiameter at equator: 7,928 miles (12,756 km)Oblateness: 0.003Mass: 5.97 x 10^24 kgVolume: 1.084 x 10^12 km^3Density: 5.52 g/cm^3Surface gravity: 9.78 m/s^2 Escape velocity: 6.94 miles (11.2 km) per secondMean surface temperature: 72F / 22 C / 295 KAlbedo: 0.39Number of known satellites: 1Mean diameter of Sun as seen from the planet: 32' 01"Satellite statisticsMoonMean distance from center of planet: 238,900 miles (384,400 km)Inclination of Axis: 6.7 degreesRotation period: 27.321 daysOrbital period: 27.321 daysOrbital eccentricity: 0.055Orbital inclination to planet's equator: 18.3 degrees to 28.6 degreesDiameter: 2,160.1 miles (3,475.6 km)Mass: 7.35 x 10^22 kgDensity: 3.34 g/cm^3Escape velocity: 1.48 miles (2.38 km) per secondMaximum apparent diameter as seen from the planet: 31' 5"Planet compositionThe core of the Earth, composed of metallic nickel iron and iron oxides, is about 6800 km (4230 miles) in diameter. The outer 2100 km of the core is molten, and the rest is solid, with a specific gravity of about 16. Surrounding the core is a mantle composed of magnesium and iron silicates. On top of thte mantle is a thin crust, approximately 33 km thick, which is divided into 15 plates. The composition of the crust varies: under the continents it consists of a substrata of granite rock, rich in silicon and aluminum, and under the oceans it is primarily basalt rocks, rich in silicon and magnesium.Inner core: radius of 1300 kmLiquid outer core: 2100 km thickMantle: 2945 km thickCrust: 33 km thickTopographyThe Earth is unlike the other terrestrial planets. Aside from being host to the only known life forms in the solar system, Earth has very few craters, many volcanic plains, and 70% of the surface is covered by water. Our planet also has folded mountain chains and platform deposits, which occur nowhere else in our solar system.Erosion, weather, sea-floor spreading, and subduction are continually changing the outer face of the planet. The highest point on the Earth's surface is the summit of Mount Everest (29,028 ft.). The largest feature on the face of the planet is the Pacific Ocean (64,186,000 sq. mi. or 166,883,600 sq. km).AtmosphereThe Earth's atmosphere today is thought to be the result of volcanic activity and the presence of living organisms, which produce oxygen through photosynthesis. Between sea level and an altitude of about 10 km lies the troposphere, which consists mainly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with traces of water vapor, argon, and carbon dioxide. This region contains 80% of the Earth's atmosphere (by mass) and is where virtually all recognizable weather takes place. Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere, where a layer of ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. In the thermosphere, which begins about 80 km from the surface, the molecules are heated by radiation from the Sun, and the temperature increases with increasing altitude. Particles that are hot enough escape from the outermost layer, the exosphere, into interplanetary space.The mean temperature on Earth is 60.53 F / 33.5 C / 306.5 K. Temperature extremes have been measured at el Azizia, Libya (136.4 F/ 75.6 C / 348.6 K) and Vostok, Antarctica (-126.9 F / -70.7 C / 202 K ).Besides affecting weather and the shape of our atmosphere, solar activity gives rise to a dramatic visual phenomenon in our atmosphere. When charged particles from the solar wind become trapped in Earth's magnetic field, they collide with air molecules above the magnetic poles and begin to glow. These glowing molecules are known as the auroras, or the northern and southern lights.Magnetic fields and gravityThe interaction of the Earth's magnetic field with the solar wind creates a bow shock and magnetosphere. The magnetic field of the Earth and other planets is similar to a dipole field--the type of field created by bar magnets. Due to the pressure of the solar wind, the magnetic field is compressed on the side of Earth facing the Sun. The magnetotail, on the other side of the Earth, streams outward for many thousands of kilometers. Within the magnetosphere are regions of charged particles which are trapped by the Earth's magnetic field. These regions are known as the Van Allen radiation belts. Earth is the densest planet in the solar system, having a density of 5.52 g/cm^3 (water has a density of 1 g/cm^3). The surface gravity is 9.78 m/s^2.Orbit and rotationThe Earth has an elliptical orbit with an eccentricity of 0.0167. Its orbital speed is 29.79 km/s.Moons and/or ringsEarth has one satellite: The Moon. From rocks and materials gathered on the Apollo expeditions, researchers have been able to conclude the Moon is between 4.0 and 4.3 billion years old. Its origins are a mystery. Four theories attempt an explanation: The moon formed near Earth as a separate body; it was torn from Earth; it formed somewhere else and was captured by our planet's gravity, or it was the result of a collision between Earth and an asteroid about the size of Mars. The first few million years of the Moon's existence were so violent that few traces of this period remain. As a molten outer layer gradually cooled and solidified into different layers of rock, the Moon was bombarded by huge asteroids and smaller objects. Some of the asteroids were as large as Rhode Island or Delaware and their collisions with the Moon created basins hundreds of kilometers across. The bombardment tapered off approximately four billion years ago, leaving the lunar highlands covered with huge, overlapping craters and a deep layer of shattered and broken rock. Heat produced by the decay of radioactive elements began to melt the interior of the Moon at depths of about 200 km (125 miles) below the surface. Then, for the next 700 million years (from about 3.8 to 3.1 billion years ago) lava rose from inside the Moon and gradually spread out over the surface, flooding the large impact basins to form the dark areas that Galileo Galilei called maria (meaning seas). As far as researchers can tell, there has been no significant volcanic activity on the Moon since then. The surface of the planet has been altered by atomic particles from the sun and stars, by the rare impacts of large meteorites, and by spacecraft and astronauts.MythologyFor many ages, the Earth was considered the center of the universe. It was also considered to be a flat disk or a square plate floating on the oceans. The Earth and atmosphere were composed of four elements: water, air, earth, and fire. Some believed in a fifth element: ether or space. The sky was believed to be a shell formed of solid crystalline material, studded with lights, and resting at the edges of the Earth. It was also believed that our world was sustained by animals, folk heroes, and other means. For example, Greeks placed the world on the shoulders of Atlas, the Vedic priests placed it on in pillars, the Hindus on the backs of animals, and the Norsemen in the branches of the world tree.Discovery and explorationFirst American satellite├│Explorer 1├│was launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida on Jan. 31, 1958 and brought to researchers' attention the intense radiation zone surrounding Earth, known as the Van Allen Belts. Between 1964 and 1968, the automated Ranger, Surveyor, and Lunar Orbiter spacecraft were dispatched by NASA to study the Moon . The first human footsteps on another planet were made by the Apollo expedition crews from 1969 to 1972.</text>
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